Ancient Egypt Essay

What are books? Well the answer is pretty simple which is books are a set of written, printed, illustrated, or blank sheets, made of ink, paper, parchment, or other materials, usually fastened together to hinge at one side. Books are available everywhere. We can get them at a bookstore, library, school and many more places. They are part and puzzle of someone’s life. There are many types of book like storybooks, fictional, non-fictional, novels, magazines, manuscript, comic books, log books, reference books, textbooks and so much more. When writing systems were invented in ancient civilisation, this system can be written on nearly everything including stone, clay, tree bark and metal sheets. Alphabetic writing emerged in Egypt about 5,000 years ago. Papyrus, a thick paper-like material made by weaving of the stems of the papyrus plant, then pounding the woven sheet with a hammer-like tool, was used for writing in Ancient Egypt. Papyrus sheets were glued together to form a scroll. Tree bark such as lime and other materials were also used. A codex in modern usage is the first information repository that modern people would recognise as a book. In the early 19th century, steamed-powered printing presses became very popular. Books were put to good use by many well-known and famous authors both in the past and present. Author is someone who makes or originates something. Philosophers like Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Sun Tzu and many more philosophers spread their ideas and messages through books. They spoke their mind through books. This in return introduced and spread ideology over the continent during the rising and falling of great empires like Rome, Greek and China. Books play an important role in the growth of language. There are over 5000 languages in the world. These languages are spread by books. Nowadays, we can get books with different languages so that means you can get a book with the same title but with a different language. There are books such as dictionary that helps people especially students that have troubles in translating from a language to another. This is called bilingual. Besides, books are essential in students’ life. It is constantly needed throughout the learning period of an individual’s life. For example, books are used in kindergartens, primary, lower and upper secondary and even in colleges or institutions. Students no matter where or which phase of the learning period they enter, books are still needed. Furthermore, working people especially those who are involved in teaching and journalism like teachers, lecturers, professors, reporters and many more. They can’t escape from books. One of their source of livelihood is books. As technology progress, books are getting unpopular. This is because that we now are able to read story books and novels through the internet as well as purchase them. People do not have to open their books and flip through pages to find information. Moreover, they can obtain the information they seek within seconds. They also do not need to buy music books anymore because it is available online. In conclusion, books are the very source of intellect and intelligence. They are huge source of knowledge. To read books are endless, even a lifetime is not sufficient. You can never read them finish. During the earlier centuries, books were the key to the growth of advanced civilisation. Therefore, even with the progression of technology, mankind should continue to read books because they are endless with knowledge.

Determining Activation Energy

Activation energy of a reaction Mengyuan Wu IB Chem HL Richard Forster March 20, 2013 Introduction: In this experiment, a reduction of peroxodisulphate (VI) ions by iodine ions is investigated. Solution of 10cm3 of K2S2O8, potassium peroxodisulphate, represented as ‘Solution A’. Mixture of 5cm3 of KI (Potassium iodide solution), and 5 cm3 of Na2S2O3 (sodium thiosulphate solution), and 2. 5cm3 of starch solution is considered as ‘Solution B’.Solution A and B are mixed together under different temperatures to show a â€Å"clock† reaction. Observation: Table 1: Raw Quantitative Data of Temperature and Time from the Experiment Fixed / Ideal Temperature ( °C)| Temperature of Solution A ( °C ±0. 5 °C)| Temperature of Solution B ( °C ±0. 5 °C)| Time Taken| Time Proceeded (seconds ±1 seconds)| 30| 31. 0| 31. 0| 3:10:34| 191| 35| 36. 0| 33. 5| 2:11:83| 132| 40| 40. 0| 38. 0| 1:37:24| 97| 45| 46. 0| 45. 5| 1:12:83| 73| 50| 51. 0| 51. 0| 0:52:40| 53| Qualitative:Before: Solution A: clear colorless solutions; Solution B: clear colorless solution During: Both solution A and B reached (or close to) a fixed temperature and mixed together form a clear colorless solution reaction time: one or few section of the solution turned clear light purple opaque purple, then the section expand to the entire solution speedily within a second the purple opaque solution gradually turn to a darker purple color After: Dark purple-black colored opaque solution Processing and Presenting Data:Table 2: Uncertainty of the Apparatus Used in the Experiment Equipment| Uncertainty| Explanation| Stopwatch| Seconds ±1 second| The actual uncertainty of the stopwatch is millisecond, shown in the column ‘Time Taken’ in Table 1. However, there are human reaction uncertainties when receiving the change in color in the actual experiment, so that particular uncertainty is presented by  ±1 second| 50cm3 Burette for K2S2O8, KI, and Na2S2O3| cm3 ±0. 02cm30. 02% for each solution| Initial Reading ( ±0. 1cm3) + Final reading ( ±0. 1cm3) = volume used ( ±0. cm3) for every solution measured in mixture A or B| 10mL Measuring Cylinder for starch solution| mL ±0. 2mL| | Thermometer|  °C ±1. 0 °C| Mixture A and B both have separate (but relatively close) temperature with uncertainty of  ±0. 5 °C each, after the average of the two the uncertainty doubles| Table 3: Processed date for temperature and time Average Temperature of the reaction ( °C ±1. 0 °C)| Proceed Temperature (K ±1. 0K)| Time Proceeded (seconds ±1 seconds)| 31. 0| 304. 0| 191| 35. 0| 308. 0| 132| 39. 0| 312. 0| 97| 46. 0| 319. 0| 73| 51. 0| 324. 0| 53|Table 4: Processed data for Graphing ln 1t (3 sig fig)| 1T (K)(4 sig fig)| -5. 25| 0. 003289| -4. 88| 0. 003246| -4. 57| 0. 003205| -4. 29| 0. 003134| -3. 97| 0. 003086| ln 1t=lnK (Proportional) t= Time T= Temperature (in K) Graph1: Calculation: Values: Table 4: Calculation to Process Temperat ure: | | Calculation 1: Average Temperature ( °C ±1. 0 °C)| Calculation 2: Temperature in K (K ±1. 0K)| | Formula| Temp. of A+Temp. of B2| Temp. in  °C+273| Fixed / Ideal Temperature ( °C)| 30| 31. 0+31. 02=31. 0| 31. 0+273=304. 0| | 35| 36. 0+33. 52=34. 75? 35. 0| 35. +273=308. 0| | 40| 40. 0+38. 02=39. 0| 39. 0+273=312. 0| | 45| 46. 0+45. 52=45. 75? 46. 0| 46. 0+273=319. 0| | 50| 51. 0+51. 02=51. 0| 51. 0+273=324. 0| Table 5: Calculation for Graphing Data | Calculation 3:ln 1t| Calculation 4:1T(K)| Fixed / Ideal Temperature ( °C)| 30| ln1191? -5. 25| 1304? 0. 003289| | 35| ln1132? -4. 88| 1308? 0. 003246| | 40| ln197? -4. 57| 1312? 0. 003205| | 45| ln173? -4. 29| 1319? 0. 003134| | 50| ln153? -3. 97| 1324? 0. 003086| Calculation 5 (Activation Energy): lnk= -EaR ? 1T+lnA y = m(slope) x + c R=8. 314 Jmol-1K-1(Diploma)Data from Graph 1: y = -6045. 3x + 14. 705 -6045. 3 = -EaR Ea=8. 314 ? 6045. 3 =50260. 6242 J =50. 2606242 KJ Random Errors: Calculation 6: (%Random Error for Average Temperature of the Reaction) Average temperature of the reaction K  ± 1. 0 K (Refer to Table 2) % Error=1. 0304. 0+1. 0308. 0+1. 0312. 0+1. 0319. 0+1. 0324. 0? 100 ? 1. 596% Calculation 7: (%Random Error for Time) Time Taken Seconds  ± 1 Second (estimated human reaction time) (Refer to Table 2) % Error=1191+1132+197+173+153? 100? 5. 569% Calculation 8: (% Random Error for Solutions) Random Error for K2S2O8+KI+ Na2S2O3+Starch 0. 02%? 3+0. 22. 5? 100 ? 8. 06% Calculation 8: (Total % Random Error) % Error=1. 596%+5. 569%+8. 06% =15. 225%=20% (one sig. fig. ) Final Answer: Calculation 9: (Final Answer) 50. 2606242 KJ  ±20% 50. 2606242 KJ =50. 3 KJ (3 sig. fig. >smallest sig. fig. in calculation) 50. 2606242 KJ? 0. 2? 10. 052 KJ=10KJ (one sig. fig. ) Experimental Result: 50. 3 KJ  ±10KJ 50. 3 KJ  ±20% Work Cited: Diploma Programme Chemistry Data Booklet. 2nd ed. Cardiff: International Baccalaureate Organization, 2008. 6. Print.

Occupy Wall Street Movement Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

Occupy Wall Street Movement - Essay Example After that it spread to around hundred cities in the United States with actions all over the globe in and around 1500 cities. The movement is to fight back against the 1% richest in the country who are in the process of steering the rules of the economy and practicing them unfairly jeopardizing the lives of remaining 99% who are the common people (Occupy wallstreet, about) Protestor’s notion The slogan of the group is, â€Å"we are the 99 percent†. The remaining 1% is all the haves i.e., that is, the â€Å"banks, the mortgage industry, the insurance industry, etc.; and the 99 percent refers to the have-nots: that is, everyone else† (Occupy Movement Wall Street). This notion incorporated a rising sense of exploitation among the US nationals done by these 1 % haves over the 99% have-nots. The protestors stated that the common people cannot be simultaneously working and poor. The protestors were guided by some particular demands. They demanded free and fair election s. They also stated that money flowing from the corporate into the elections will be eliminated, there will be only public funding, and public election channel should be made the centers of debate and educational campaigns. After the elections there would be no financial gifting or gifting requirements for meeting privately with the selected officials. There should be properly operated televised public as well as transparent investigations regarding the financial meltdown, mortgage derivatives, and returns of the taxpayers. The protestors also demand of telecasted transparent investigations in the social security funding along with its background and allocation details. There should be also securing of low risk investment policies to the funds borrowed from the social security funds. Corporations are channelizing jobs at lower wage rates to the countries which lack basic human sustainability and the Americans are losing jobs continuously. The corporations are required to operate her e by providing the local nationals jobs (List of Goals for Occupy Wall Street). Reactions from opposing political parties There was initial hesitation regarding the spread of the movement from both the Democrats party and the Republicans. This can be thought of a natural response to any protests in its initial phase (Klein). The democrats and the occupy wall street movement pose similar concerns related to the economic inequalities. The democrats refused of engaging with their lot with the protesters of the movement confronting the police and the squats in the public encampments. The Democrats embraced the movement with spreading demonstrations across the country with the attainment of robust support from the progressive traditional institutions. The democratic leaders stated that the movement has many positive sides to it. The democrats supported the central message of the movement which aimed reflecting the large economic inequalities growing up in the country due to the greed of corporate. The democrats are quite enthusiastic about the movement and they believe that the sentiments are increasing in a rapid pace within the country. There were even more progressive democrats who showed more enthusiasm. Some of them stated that, â€Å"I’m so proud to see the Occupy Wall Street movement standing up to this rampant corporate greed and peacefully participating in our democracy†

Conference week 4 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Conference week 4 - Assignment Example This strategy currently is evident with online corporations thereby gaining much popularity. Several companies have put up their online stores and begun marketing and selling their products directly to their bypassing retailers and consumers (Lussier 139). Taking a keen look at whatever happened to Amazon, just as mentioned in the article, it is possible to note that the strategy Amazon attempted was forward integration strategy. The company tried its best to apply this strategy though failed utterly. If Amazon could have considered certain factors in consideration to its functional and operational unit, then the company would have been successful in implementing the forward integration strategy. Despite Amazon’s strategies failing, there are certain things that the company could have done in its functional and operational sectors that would have assisted it in evading the challenges that they faced during the implementation of the strategy they adopted. Amazon should have considered functional strategies. These are relatively short-range activities, which every functional sector within a company must carry out to put into practice broader, longer-term business level and corporate level strategies. Each functional sector of a company has numerous strategy alternatives, which interact with and ought to be consistent with the general strategies of the company (Lussier 140). In most cases, three fundamental features normally differentiate the operational or functional strategies from business level and corporate level strategies. These three features include primary participation of operating directors, greater specificity and shorter time horizon. In addition, some other key areas that that should always be checked when implementing the functional strategies include the major functional areas of production/operations, marketing, research

Financial analysis of BMW and Kraft Foods Essay

Financial analysis of BMW and Kraft Foods - Essay Example The researcher states that the profitability ratios of both the companies depict that Kraft Foods has higher profitability in terms of high operating margin, net profit margin and return on equity. Besides, both the firms had maintained their current ratio above 1. With respect to interest coverage ratio, BMW had higher rank than Kraft Foods which indicates that it has strong financial strength in the industry. The current economic crisis of 2008 had impacted on the financial performance of BMW Group. Due to bad financial condition, the spending of customers had reduced considerably which impacted on the expenditure on vehicles. As a result, the automobile industry had faced drop in sales volume. BMW Group was also unable to evade the impact of financial crisis and therefore the group income had reduced by 5% in the year 2008 to 53,197 million Euros. As the international economy was recovering from the clutches of economic crisis by the end of the year 2010, BMW Group was able to rec over its financial position in the automobile market. The global automobile industry has also become stabilised to certain degree. In 2010, BMW Group had experienced severe increase in sales revenue by 19.3% than 2009 to 60,477 million Euros. Kraft Foods is a financially stable company with revenues of 40.4 billion USD in the year 2009. In the year 2009, the total value of net assets of the company was 25.9 billion USD. Despite bad economic conditions, the revenue of Kraft Foods was slightly affected. In 2007, the net revenue was 35,858 million USD which had increased to 41,932 million USD in 2008 (Kraft Foods Inc, 2010). Ratio Analysis Valuation Ratio Price-Earnings (P/E) Ratio Price-Earnings or P/E Ratio is the ratio of organisation’s share price with earning per share. From the analysis of BMW, it can be observed that the earnings per share of BMW Group had decreased considerably in the time of 2008 to 2009 to 0.49 Euro and 0.31 Euro and increased in 2010 to 4.91 Euro. His torically, the P/E ratio of BMW Group was strong and was always more than the industry average which is around 15-25. In the year 2007, the P/E ratio was below average i.e. 8.5 which had increased to 11.98 in 2010 (BMW Group, 2008; 2010). The price earnings ratio of Kraft Foods was

Difficult in finding good jobs Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Difficult in finding good jobs - Essay Example (Lenard, 2011) Depending on which state one resides in, the difficulty in finding employment can be described as .82 workers for every position, (in Washington, D.C.) or as many as 8.24 workers for every position (in Michigan). (Lenard, 2011) Production jobs are down nearly 50% as a result of outsourcing. (Lenard, 2011) With unemployment benefits on the decrease, due to fewer workers in the system supporting the tax base revenues from which those benefits derive, what does the future look like for these people? (Lenard, 2011) The impact of not being able to find work has caused some serious consequences for our economy. (Bruce, 2011) This type of structural unemployment is closely aligned with system failure. (Bruce, 2011) The current economic downturn has been long lasting. (Bruce, 2011) Most business cycles take approximately 20 years to return to their previous position. (Bruce, 2011) That means we have approximately 10 – 12 more years before we will be able to see more availability of employment. (Bruce, 2011) In addition to decreased productivity in the marketplace, unemployed workers are no longer supporting the tax revenue base that pays for unemployment benefits as well as numerous social programs that provide health care, training, and child care assistance to help people stay healthy and find employment. (Bruce, 2011) This creates a situation where the government must either increase taxes or borrow the money to cover this debt. Increased taxes lead to less consumption, which creates new unemployment. (Bruce, 2011) It takes money out of the financial markets, which also increases the interest rates; this, in turn, increases costs for companies and lowers profit margins; again, creating more layoffs. (Bruce, 2011) It’s a downward spiral. As companies outsource, they eliminate American workers and the managers that keep the production cycle in motion. (Bruce, 2011) For the ethnic worker, illegal immigrants take on blue collar jobs that many

INDIVIDUAL PROJECT 3 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

INDIVIDUAL PROJECT 3 - Essay Example Issues such as development of new departments and work process flows are considered as potential threat by the existing employees because they might feel that they may be rendered as useless due to redundancy of their skills. Modern managers therefore have to manage different aspects of change management in order to ensure that the new changes that are being introduced within the organization are readily accepted with little or no resistance. For this, it is also critical that the employees are considered as a part of the process and as such any change that is brought about shall be floated as an indigenous idea which can only facilitate the existing work. The recent changes at SWC indicate the recent efforts to bring in new and positive change might not have been gone well with the employees and there is a growing need of having a change management plan that could have allowed the firm to make a swift transition to the proposed new structure and developing a new framework for future. It is believed that change always occur first into the heads of the people and than it is translated through changes to be made into the people, processes as well as systems and activities. Organizations often have to manage change in a manner that can allow them to achieve their strategic objectives. The psychodynamics of the change management therefore requires that the managers must contextualize the change in a manner which reflects the change as an indigenous process of change rather than something which is being imposed externally. (Carr & Gabriel, 2001). In order to make change, It is therefore important that one must also understand the change and for that matter, the issues such as change imperative, the psychology of change as well as resistence to change must be understood in their true spirit in order to bring in change that can be easily accepted. (Harris & Crane, 2002). This therefore also requires that the whole process of

Social problem Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Social problem - Essay Example To address this issue, the paper will draw on a variety of different sources as well as give some personal opinions on the matter. There is little question that drugs can play a very positive role in our modern society. Drugs are often prescribed or taken in moderation to help our physical health, and in this respect one can consider drug use to be beneficial to our societal well being. According to the World Health Organization (1969) a drug is in its most basic terms, a substance that can be absorbed into the body to modify a bodily function. In this respect one could consider any number of chemically engineered and naturally occurring substances as being classified as a drug. However in a more common context and for the purpose of this paper, the focus will be on drugs that are taken for recreational purposes to the determent of one’s personal health (Or wellbeing) or to those around the drug taker in question. For the purpose of this paper the focus will be on more traditional drugs such as alcohol, cannabis, opiates, barbiturates, etc. It should be noted that many of thee drugs are legally obtained, either over the counter, or through prescription yet still maybe detrimental. There are many substances such as coffee which technically meet the definition of being a drug and may be detrimental to one’s health but in the broadest sense these substances are not as detrimental to society as a number of other more powerful narcotics. Why are drugs considered a societal problem? In many circumstances people can take drugs recreationally and not harm themselves. So it is the case that a drug such as alcohol in the hands of most people does not represent a serious threat to society or one’s health. However it is the case that some people do negatively respond to the stimuli brought about from alcoholic beverage consumption and engage in behavior that

The Interprofessional Working Environment with Vulnerable Adult with Essay

The Interprofessional Working Environment with Vulnerable Adult with Learning Disabilities - Essay Example As individuals, health practitioners and society are informed, take concern and progressive actions, various professional groups backed by government institutions and private ones are assigned either by choice or by obligation to individuals that need the help and assistance to lead a healthy, normal productive life. This study would try to delineate the current status of interprofessional working condition with regards to government programs and support, public and private agenda and contributions, as well as the actual process, problems and situations involved in being an occupational therapist with a vulnerable adult with learning difference. Occupational therapists (OTs) work with individuals with mental, physical, emotional or developmental disabilities to help them improve their ability to do everyday tasks at home and at work (BLS, 2005) with the goal to make clients have independent, productive, healthy and satisfying lives. The Deaprtment of Health through the National Health Service (NHS) in the United Kingdom provide for the necessary support in order to attain a holistic output in all efforts undertaken by both the health and social services sector. As the agency mutate and change over time adopting new policies and programs and discarding those which they deemed outmoded and outdated, professional groups from various agencies are hauled in the scene altogether. Pietroni (1994) described inter-working professional relations developed through hospital teamwork among surgical teams and mental health teams. But the Community Care Act further required social care assessment so that team membership became extended to psychologists, psychiatrists, counsellors, occupational therapists, pharmacists, and most recently, music and art therapists. But also a part of the growing network are from education, housing, court solicitors, voluntary and private sectors (Kingdon, 1992). Stott (1995) observed that by 1990s, the practice-based primary care in the UK have developed into a continuing and comprehensive care that shifted away from the personal doctor. West (1994) added that challenge is already focused to continuing personal care as well as achieving effective teamwork through shared vision, objectives and protocols. The 28 Strategic Health Authorities (SHAs) were introduced in 2002 that led to strategic developments that disbanded former health authorities and also underlined a major NHS issue which is constant change (Leathard, 2003). So that with this preconception, change has been equated to policies and legislations that affect health and social care since. As agencies and professionals with differing background and duties come together to handle individuals with special needs such as vulnerable adults with learning disabilities, a work environment is changed. Many believe that evaluation is still much needed but more also support his integration of different professionals. In a study conducted by Fawcett (2002), it was indicated that among 183 adults who self-reported learning disabilities, over 60 percent admitted that the disabilities persist into adult life. This is prevailing notion as well as a fact that beseech individuals with LD. Here, occupational

Ethical Dilemma Worksheet Essay Example for Free

Ethical Dilemma Worksheet Essay Include any important | |potential economic, social, or political pressures, and exclude inconsequential facts. | | | |The most important fact about this case is that officers never saw the male suspect driving while intoxicated. The fact that two | |different police reports were made one stating the officer saw the male driving and the other stating officer did not see the male | |driving. | |Identify each claimant (key actor) who has an interest in the outcome of this ethical issue. From the perspective of the moral | |agent—the individual contemplating an ethical course of action—what obligation is owed to the claimant? Why? | |Claimant |Obligation (owed to the|Perspective (What does the claimant hope will happen? ) | |(key actor) |claimant) | | |Officer Rook |Designated officer to |Officer Rook wrote the original police report and followed policy and turned it in to | | |write original report |the D. A. ffice to let the process begin for the individual male arrested for driving | | | |while intoxicated. | | D. D. A. Acute |To ensure that laws are| | | |upheld and the process |D. D. A. notices the differences between both police reports and make notes of them. | | |serves all parties |The D. D. A. has the responsibility to uphold all laws and rights of individuals and | | |involved. |wants to ensure that the criminal justice system is just and fair. |Officer Nixon |Turning in second |Officer Nixon turned in the second the police report that made note that the officers | | |police report |saw the individual male driving. This officer wants a conviction of the individual | | | |male for driving while intoxicated. | |Wife |Wants to take husband |Wife wants to take husband home after being processed. Wife reported that her husband| | |home |had bad experiences while in Somalia and it would best for him to go home. | | | | | | | | Evaluating Alternatives |What are two alternatives for the scenario? One alternative can be a wild card that you ordinarily may not consider an option | |because of potential implications. Both should be within free will and control of the same moral agent. |Alternative A |Alternative B | |Use report without seeing intoxicated male driving |Use report with seeing intoxicated male driving | |Respond to the following questions based on your developed alternatives. | | |Alternative A |Alternative B | |What are the best- and worst-case | | |scenarios if you choose this |Best-Original report is used charges are |Best-male is convicted of driving while | |alternative? |dropped. |intoxicated | | | | | | |Worst- the male individual is drug through |Worse-Male is convicted of driving while | | |the criminal justice system and tax payer |intoxicated. The original police report is | | |money is wasted. |never shared | |Will anyone be harmed if this |No harm will come. |Yes harm may come when convicted and sentence to| |alternative is chosen? If so, how | |serve time incarcerated. | |will they be harmed? Consider | | | |families and derivative effects. | | |Would honoring an idea or value—such | | | |as personal, professional, or |No |Yes | |religious—make the alternative | | | |invalid? | | | | | | |Are there any rules, laws, or | | | |principles that support the |Yes the law of needing to see the driver of |no | |alternative? Are there rules, laws, |driving while intoxicated. | | |or principles that make the | | | |alternative invalid? State the rule | | |or principle and indicate if it | | | |invalidates or supports the | | | |alternative. | | | Applying Ethical Guidelines |Consider each ethical guideline and explain whether it would support or reject your alternative. |Guidelines based on the action itself |Alternative A |Alternative B | |Should this alternative become a rule or policy that everyone in this|There is law in place to avoid|No, this is wrong and | |situation should follow in similar situations in the future? (Kant) |making arrests like this. |unethical | |Does this alternative result in using any person as a means to an end|No |Yes the Officer Nixon wrote a | |without consideration for his or her basic integrity? Kant) | |bad report and is using the | | | |court system to enforce his | | | |false report | |Is the intent of this action free from vested interest or ulterior |Yes |No, convict ion is wanted | |motive? Kant’s good will) | | | | Does this alternative demonstrate a genuine concern for others |No |No | |affected by the decision, and is the moral agency responding to a | | | |perceived need? | | | |Guidelines based on consequences |Alternative A |Alternative B | |Is the good hat results from this alternative outweighed by the |Yes, the good being that the |No, falsifying reports is | |potential harm that might be done to others? (Mill’s harm principle) |charges are dropped. |unethical and can have | | | |rippling effects on all | | | |officers. |Is any harm brought about by anyone other than the moral agent? |No |Yes, the husband and the | |(causal harm) | |rookie officer who wrote the | | | |first report. | |Will anyone be harmed who can be said to be defenseless? No |No | |(paternalism) | | | |To what degree is this alternative based on the moral agent’s own |This is the truthful report |This should never be used, | |best interest? (ethical egoism) |and should be used regardless |based on it bei ng falsified. | |of the outcomes. | | |Which alternative will generate the greatest benefit—or the least |Because this alternative is | | |amount of harm—for the greatest number of people? Select only one |the truth it will only have | | |alternative. (utilitarianism) |the best possible outcome. | Ethical Decision Making |Choose to proceed with either Alternative A or Alternative B and explain the reasons for your decision. | | | |I would go with alternative A, because it is the truth and the original report turned in. I would allow the court system work | |their process and except the outcome reached. I would then address the facts of a falsified police report and the officer who tried| |to used it. |

Modernization theory and marxists understandings and interpretive theories

Modernization theory and marxists understandings and interpretive theories The term development has been one of the main themes in contemporary educational discourses. In order to materialize this discourse in action, various theories and philosophies have emerged. Modernization theory, Marxists philosophy and various forms of interpretive theories are some of the examples of those emergences. Each theory and philosophy mentioned above has its own way of defining development but the ultimate target of all these theories is the same, and that is to guide society into the path of development. It is into this context that I would review modernization theory, Marxists understandings and interpretive theories and at the same time would explore their premises and inquiry processes. Based on those understandings I would develop an educational plan, which would help address the need of impoverished children of different caste, ethnicity and religious orientations. Let me begin with modernization theory. This theory perceives development in a linear form. In this linearity, developed societies sit at the top of the line while the least developed sit at the bottom. The whole notion of modernization theory thus is to find ways on how the least developed society can frog leap itself from the bottom position to the top position. Emerged in Europe in the 17th century, this theory often sees traditions as obstacles to economic growth. In doing so, this theory attempts to identify the social variables, which contribute to social progress and development of societies, and seeks to explain the process of social evolution. In other words, modernization is a process of socio-cultural transformation that brings changes in sectors like politics, culture, economics, society, and so on. As stated earlier, modernization is a transformation process. Supporting this statement, Zhang Thomas (1994) state that during this process workplace shifts from home to the factory (industrialization), people move from farms into cities where jobs are available (urbanization) and large scale formal organizations emerge (bureaucratization). Apart, this process of change also involves changes in norms, values, institutions and structures. However, in between these transformation processes there are certain premises through which this theory stands its arguments. These premises meanwhile are mostly related to political, cultural, economics and social dimensions of modernization. Democratic restructuring of the society is the major premise of the political dimension of modernization. In fact, it believes in the power of the people and voices the concerns of the people. Saying so, it advocates the democratic notion of politics whereby everyone has the freedom to voice their concerns not like the political structure of non-democratic states where there is less freedom of such kind. This view of modernization argues that human agents are responsible for shaping and controlling the development and the altered opportunities in the society. However, this dimension of modernization resides on three sub premises. First, it assumes that vertical accountability in the society is essential. The fulfillment of this premise, according to modernization theory would allow citizens to choose their political leaders through elections and at the same time participate in various political activities. In the words of Sen (2007) this premise brings political freedom in the societ y, which then brings other forms of freedoms as well. Second, political restructuring needs horizontal accountability in the society. This premise believes that democracy would allow the decentralization and devolution of power to the lower level. The fulfillment of this premise, according to modernization theory would prioritize local knowledge and understanding in every aspects of the society. Third, political restructuring rests on societal accountability as well. In saying so, this premise states that political restructuring permits civic associations, other I/NGOs and an independent mass media to watchdog and monitor the actions of the state. All these premises have one thing in common and that is the fact that it puts people on top of the structure or system. In other words, the major inquiry process of this form of modernization rests on the fact that people believed democratic process because it guarantees inclusiveness of all forms in every aspects of the society. Sen (Ibid ) boosted this inquiry process by claiming that political freedom brings human and political rights, social opportunities, transparency guarantees and protective security. The rights-based approach to development, at the same time focused on participation and accountability as two major elements that would be essential for democratic reforms in the society. All these premises and inquiry processes state that democracy is the crowning achievement of a long process of modernization (Source). In Nepalese politics thought, these premises and inquiry processes have had both positive and negative impacts. The restoration of multi-party democracy in 1990 BS is an example of the successful universal democratization process in Nepal. The inclusion of various forms of acts and rights is also a direct fruits of the modernization process. Mass consciousness has grown about universal concepts like good governance, popular participation, civil society and so on. The exposure of the Nepalese people to the outside world has also brought important changes in peoples life style including political life. However, modernization has also brought negative impacts in Nepalese political system. The resentful socio-cultural factors like caste and class and ethnic minorities have become stronger. The state has diverted its attention and service towards the protection of the interests of the donor-financed projects. The international donor organizations like World Bank and the International Mone tary Fund has interfered in the economic, political, social and military life of the country. Modernization has also caused a progressive erosion of the ideology of major political parties of Nepal, which has brought them to more or less common front. With the process of democratic restructuring, the decision making power of the government has gradually shifted to international institutions like Multi National Companies and international donor agencies. All these impacts suggest that a) modernization works effectively in a politically stable nation b) modernization supports developed nations rather than the least-developed nations c) the term modernization has become equivalent with westernization and d) modernization has made the political system of the least developed countries a donor driven. Like political restructuring, economic restructuring is also one of the major premises of modernization theory. In saying so, modernization theory rests on three sub premises of economic restructuration and they are policies of economic liberalization, globalization and privatization. Resources are available in all parts of the country and hence there shouldnt be any barriers to the transaction of resources in and outside the country is the major reason why modernization theory premises economic liberalization as one of the keys to development. In doing so, modernization theory advocated laissez faire economy and inquired that less government restriction on economy is an efficient way of encouraging development in the society. The state, at the same time inquired that lesser intervention in economic activities would enable the country to prioritize its activities in sectors like education, health and national security. Apart from liberalization policy, modernization theory also resid es on private mode of economic transactions. In other words, modernization theory presumes that private sectors have better managerial and profit-earning skills in compared to public enterprises that have less skill of those types. In saying so, this premise inquired that private sector through the use of technologies and various capitals manage the economic transactions very efficiently. Lastly, the idea that the existing capital, technology, labor, raw materials, information and transportation, distribution and marketing are integrated and/or interdependent on a global scale is the major premise through which economic globalization equips the development of countries. In this scenario, modernization theory inquired that free mobility of labor takes place amongst the nations. In fact this theory inquired that information, economy, technology and ideas are beyond the control of national government and hence stated that internationally globalized economy is one of the main sources th rough which those limitations could be fulfilled. Adding the political dimension of modernization into the economic dimension of this theory, Feng (2003) states that democracy along with policies of liberalization, globalization and privatization are keys to economic and social development because it allows policy certainty, political stability, the establishment and enforcement of rules that protect property rights, the promotion of education, the ability to promote private capital, and the reduction of inequality. The economic dimension of modernization has also provided both positive and negative impacts in Nepal. The abolition of licensing requirements for industrial investment, opening of the infrastructure, education and health sectors to the private sector and liberalization of convertible currency transactions are some of the few success stories from Nepal (Acharya, 2005). However, the depreciation of Nepalese rupee by two and half times against the American dollar and other convertible currencies between 1984/85 and 1995/96 can be considered as one of the negative impacts of modernization in Nepal (Ibid). The increasing number of imports in compared to exports can also be classified under the negative impacts of modernization in Nepal. The increasing number of absolute and relative poor from 5.3 million in 1984/85 to 8.8 million in 1995/96 is another example which illustrates that modernization has not been able to address the poverty issue. Unfortunately, distribution of income has bec ome more skewed with fewer numbers of people earning more and vice versa. All these examples suggest that modernization has a) enabled free movement of labor and capital in and outside the country; as a result Nepalese market has been penetrated by capitals and labor from neighboring countries with very little gains for the mass of the population b) created an environment where minority benefitted the most c) has disrupted traditional livelihood patterns without creating alternative channels of employment for the masses. Social and cultural restructuring are two remaining premises of modernization theory. The previously stated dimensions of modernization saw political and trade ties as major premises while social and cultural dimension of modernization valued shared life, shared clothing styles and mass media as major premises of development. This idea got lots of boost when Parsons (date) stated that maintaining traditions for traditions sake is not good for society and hence societies should be open to change and oppose the reactionary forces that restrict the development of the society. This statement from Parsons is another important premise upon which modernization rests upon. In addition, the idea that political and economic restructuring would enable and encourage indigenous peoples society, culture and language remained as one of the major premises of this dimension of modernization theory. Although there have been many claims that modernization destructs cultural and social identity, Tomlins on (2003) presumes that modernization in fact resists the centrifugal force of cultural and social capitalist globalization but at the same time allows pluralistic visions on other cultures. This understanding inquires three facts about cultural and social dimensions of modernization. First, the regulatory and socializing institution of the state, in particular, the law, the education system and the media always ensure that nation doesnt loose its cultural and social identity. Second, modernization inquires the feeling of nationalism in the country, the feeling, which Billig (1995) terms as banal nationalism that continuously flags the sense of national belongings in the country, particularly through media discourse. Third, modernity institutionalizes and regulates cultural practices, by which we imagine attachment and belonging to a place or a community. Favoring this statement, Tomlinson (2003) argues that modernization inquires identity in the cases where there were no identity i n previous times and even if there were identities, modernization institutionalizes and regulates those identities. Much like the political and economic dimensions of modernization, social and cultural dimensions also had both positive and negative impacts in Nepalese society. The increasing use of science and technology, better health care system, transportation and communication facilities, expansion of education to all and imports of foreign consumer products are some of the major positive impacts that have taken place in Nepal after the modernization era. However, the ideology that west is the best psyche that is shaping up in least developed countries like ours is arguably the most negative impact of modernization. Similarly, the invasion of western culture in least developed countries like ours is also making people passive; hence they are not interested in the everyday problems but rather are interested in alien music, songs, dance, sports and life styles. In this scenario, we are getting sandwiched in between various cultures. Another notable negative impact is the increasing number of bra in drain and muscle exchange from one country to another. The data from Ministry of Education shows that in an average around 1,000 students apply for no objection letter from the ministry, meaning we are loosing those numbers of students on a day to foreign countries. All these examples state that cultural and social dimensions of modernization has a) out flowed labor and capital from the country b) displaced indigenous language, knowledge and production c) created inappropriate consumption and investment patterns d) developed allied local groups and e) widened elite-mass gap. To summarize, modernization theory believes in modern technology, encourages state and people to break their traditional way of doing works and so on. In doing so they advocated various forms of dimensions, which state needs to address if it is to be modern. The table given below summarizes all these premises and inquiry processes of modernization. Table 1: Dimensions, premises and inquiry processes of modernization Dimensions Premises Inquiry Processes Political Democratic restructuring Important role of human agents Vertical accountability Horizontal accountability Societal accountability People and technology have power to change Freedom is essential Independent mass media is necessary Democracy guarantees inclusiveness of all forms Economic Liberalization Globalization Privatization Resources are available in all parts of the country and hence no barriers to the transaction of resources Lesser intervention in economic activities by the state Private sectors have better managerial and profit-earning skills Free mobility of labor Information, economy, technology and ideas are beyond the control of national government Socio-cultural Shared life, shared clothing styles and mass media Open to change and oppose the reactionary forces that restrict the development of the society Pluralistic visions on other cultures The regulatory and socializing institution of the state ensure that nation doesnt loose its cultural and social identity Banal nationalism continuously flags the sense of national belongings in the country Cultural practices strengthen the attachment and detachment to a place and community Unlike modernization theory that advocates for capitalistic mode of governance and economy, Marx and Marxists propose the opposite. In fact, Marxists believe that capitalism, in due time falter; as a result socialist mode of governance and economy succeeds capitalism. In this regard, Marxism is the antithesis of capitalism, the antithesis that focuses on building a system where state controls the means of production, distribution and exchange. Inspired by the work of Karl Marx and Friedrich Angels, Marxism is a radical political philosophy that views world from economic and sociologist lenses. In so doing, Marxism acknowledges that society comprises various classes of people and that capitalistic mode of economy further deepens this class structure by creating a gap between those haves and have-nots. In other words, Marxism believes that capitalism forms two major economic classes in the society; one is bourgeoisie that holds major forms of productions and possess most of the resources of the society while the other is proletariat that sells labor to bourgeoisie and virtually suffer from hand to mouth problem all the time. To make matter worse, the above stated dimensions of modernization theory, which Marxism believes are an essential element of capitalism, further, worsen the imbalances between the economic classes. For example, the political dimension of globalization advocates for lesser intervention of government in e conomic activities but Marxists believe that such action would encourage the growth of bourgeoisie while proletariats would always suffer. Sociologically, Marxism believes that society has a direct relationship with the productive capacity of labor. In other words, the higher the productive capacity of labor, the higher the development of society becomes and vice versa. Capitalism however underestimates this relationship; Marxists believe and claim that capitalism is the main reason behind the sufferings of working class laborers. In this regard, Marx and Marxists propose three main primary aspects in its philosophy a) struggle exists between social classes b) capitalism always exploits and c) proletarian revolution succeeds capitalism. Thus, Marxism is a humanity-centered philosophy. It is also an activist view of looking society. It recognizes the constraints upon human action and also acknowledges that those constraints are the creations of other sets of human beings. In the end, Marx and Marxists believe that socialism replaces capitalism just like the way capitalism replaced feudalism in the past. Underneath Marxism, there are four major premises that shape this philosophy. First, the notion that classes exists in the society; as a result social classes struggle against each other is the main premise of Marxism. Had different classes of people lived together in equal respects, the conflicting scenario wouldnt have happened and Marx philosophy wouldnt have started in the first place. According to this premise, it is the control over factors of production that is partly responsible for creating struggle between classes. In saying so, Marxists believe that foundation of society depends on the productive capacity of society. During time when the productive capacity of society increases the social relations of production and class relations also evolve and hence conflict and struggle start. This evolvement of class struggles according to Marxists; pass through definite stages starting from feudalism to capitalism and ultimately rests into socialism. Unlike capitalism that creates c lass struggles through self-centric activities, socialism according to Marxists, harmonizes the relationships between various classes as it allows collective social earning and redistributing of income to all. In this regard, socialistic movement is an essential element for Marx and Marxism, which according to them is the only solution for neutralizing the struggle between classes. Labor is the most important factor of production, which capitalism always undermines is the second premise of Marx and Marxism. Marx, in his philosophy discusses about necessary labor and surplus labor and argues that capitalism pays labor only the amount of wages that is sufficient enough for them to maintain their livelihood. This according to Marx and Marxism is the wages for necessary labor but argues that labors produce far more than they get paid, which Marx and Marxists call as extra earnings through surplus labor that capitalism do not share with the labors. Despite these exploitations, Marx and Marxists premise that laborers keep on competing with each other thus allowing capitalists to further exploit them and as a result laborers always lay at the bottom of a pyramidal authority structure. It is through this premise, the whole philosophy of Marx and Marxism believe that proletariat revolution is necessary and is capable enough to let laborers fight, defend and improve the position of their status at work. Only when the laborers or proletariat become the ruling class, the centralization of all instruments of production is possible, which then allows for acceleration of production, Marx and Marxists argue in support of this premise. The conception that private ownership of property increases inequality is the third premise of Marx and Marxism. Had there been a system where society owns all the means of production, the income inequality would not have happened and also the need for proletariat revolution would not have felt, Marx and Marxists believe. Marx Weber, one of the Marxists further built this premise stating that human beings earn cultural and religious capitals based on what sort of society and culture they get exposed into. In this scenario, if human beings get accustomed to capitalistic mode of owning property, Marx and Marxists believe that proletariats would always be in the state of misery. The only solution however, according to Marx and Marxists is the building up of socialist design of owning property where society would be the caretaker of all those property. Success in doing so means the minimization of frustration and antagonism on the part of people, Marx and Marxists believe. Abolition of t he right of inheritance, centralization of communication and transportation, universal and equal obligation to work, abolition of factory work for children, and expropriation of landed property are some of the ways through which Marx and Marxists argue that private ownership of property can be discouraged. Finally, the fourth major premise of Marx and Marxism is related to the relationship between base and superstructures, the two economic concepts that Marx and Marxism believe are not strictly causal but are reciprocal. Base, according to this premise are factors like employer-employee working conditions, the technical division of labor and property relations that comprehend the relations of production and it is on the basis of those bases people enter to produce the necessities and amenities of life. Superstructure meanwhile is the set of socio-psychological feedback loops that maintain a coherent and meaningful structure in a given society. Culture, religion, institutions, power structures, roles and rituals of the society are some of the examples of superstructures. Marx and Marxists thus believe that base and superstructures exist in the society and human beings, through these two factors build definite forms of their own consciousness. In this regard, this premise states that soc ial existence determines the consciousness of human beings not the other way around. Due time however, Marx and Marxists believe that conflict is likely to occur between base and superstructures, which then brings an era of social revolution. Just like other premises, which assume that social revolution ultimately brings socialism this premise also does the same. Already stated above, Marx and Marxism is a radical political philosophy. In this regard, it uses process of inquiry to arrive at hypotheses and theories about a domain of empirical phenomena. In so doing, this process also provides justification for the proposed hypotheses and theories as well. Also called as methodology in purely research terms, it allows us to recognize the systems, structures, and causal processes that are embedded in the social world, the world that gives rise to relations of power, domination, exploitation and resistance. Below given are some of the ways through which Marx and Marxists have analyzed their inquiry processes. First, Marxism uses material dialectics as an inquiry process in looking at the society. Materially, it focuses on the forces and relations of production, and at the same time postulates that technology and power are fundamental with regards to other social formations such as literature, culture and law. This process of inquiry is sensitive to the workings of ideology and false consciousness in our understandings of the social institutions within which we live, particularly the understanding of capitalism. It also pays special interest, and offers special concern, to the perspectives of the under classes at any given time in history. Likewise, Marx and Marxists by discussing ideas and opinions logically inquire that there are contradictions in historical processes and as a result change is necessary. Also called as dialectics, this inquiry process highlights the high-level hypothesis that capitalism is solely responsible for creating gaps between various classes of people and hence a s written earlier, change is necessary and inevitable. The rational choice approach is another inquiry process that Marx and Marxists often use in their philosophy. This approach postulates the fact that an individual is rational enough to think and act in regards to what is best and what is worst for them. Through this approach, Marx and Marxists explained the tools of political economy, and demonstrated the laws of capitalism. Marxs argument for the falling rate of profit, concerning the contradiction between the individual capitalists interests and the interests of the class of capitalists as a whole is an example of rational choice approach. Realist empiricism, according to Little (n.d) is the main epistemological inquiry process of Marx and Marxists. Through this inquiry process, Marx and Marxists arrive to the conclusion that scientific knowledge provides statements about unobservable structures that are approximately true, and that the basis of evaluation of such hypotheses is through appropriate use of empirical methods such as observation, experimentation, and historical inquiry. In this regard, their inquiry process of knowing the truth is premised on the notion that well-founded beliefs about the social world can be arrived on the basis of empirical methods and theoretical reasoning. The whole notion of class struggles and proletariat revolution are examples of such inquiry process where Marx and Marxists derive to the conclusion based on what they observe, what they experiment and what they historically inquire. In regards to metaphysical inquiry process of society and historical processes, Marx and Marxism have presupposes numerous assumptions. First, they inquire that social world is a causal order; in research terms social world bears a cause and effect relationship. The premise that class exists and as a result conflict arises is based on cause and effect inquiry process. Second, social structures have properties and causal characteristics. Third, individual constitute social structures through their actions and choices. Fourth, modes of production consist of sets of forces and relations of production. The idea of alienation, super structures and capitalistic design of social system are examples of this inquiry process. Ontologically, Marx and Marxism inquire that some individuals and groups control labor time of others and derive benefit from their labor without compensation. In saying so, this inquiry process argues that individuals have consciousness and freedom, but they find themselves always within the context of individuals and ideas that, in turn structure their understandings of the relations that govern them. The labor theory of value, and the theory of surplus value provide an analytical framework within which to theorize about exploitation. Marxs concept of alienation, fetishism and mystification are also foundation in his social ontology. The above given inquiry process clearly shows that Marx always tried to describe and explain the phenomena of capitalism based on a family of hypotheses, feelings, and ontological commitments. In this sense, it could be said that Marx and Marxism do offer some social science inquiry process but do not offer distinctively. Whatever process they have inquired, it provides a substantive contribution to social science, in the form of a series of descriptive and theoretical insights, particularly about the institutional anatomy and dynamics of capitalism and social behavior. The table given below summarizes the above-mentioned inquiry process. Table 2: Inquiry processes of Marx and Marxism Inquiry Types Inquiry Process Dialectical materials Focuses on the forces and relations of production Postulates that technology and power are fundamental with regards to literature, culture and law Pays special interest, and offers special concern, to the perspectives of the under classes Contradictions in historical processes Rational choice Individual is rational enough to think and act Through this approach, Marx and Marxists explained the tools of political economy, and demonstrated the laws of capitalism Realist empiricism (Epistemology) Scientific knowledge provides statements about unobservable structures that are approximately true Well-founded beliefs about the social world can be arrived on the basis of empirical methods and theoretical reasoning Metaphysics Social world is a causal order Social structures have properties and causal characteristics Individual constitute social structures through their actions and choices Modes of production consist of sets of forces and relations of production Ontology Individuals and groups control labor time of others and derive benefit from their labor without compensation Individuals have consciousness and freedom, but they find themselves always within the context of individuals and ideas Structural theories stated above focus on the situation in which people act. The proletariat revolution as a result of bourgeoisie exploitation is an example of structural theory where Marxists notion of exploitation is the situation and revolution is the act. The interpretive theories see human behavior as the outcome of the subjective interpretation of the environment. In other words, interpretive theories gains knowledge from somebody elses point of view and appreciates the cultural and social factors that may have influenced their outlook. Interpretive theories are important in this contemporary world, Bevir and Rhodes (n.d) argue because until and unless one doesnt understand human affairs properly, one cannot grasp the relevant meaning of anything. In this regard, it could be said that interpretive theorists acknowledge that in order to understand actions, practices and institutions, one need to grasp the meanings, beliefs and preferences of the people, society and other instit utions. In other words, exploration of ideas and knowledge through peoples lenses is the main impulse of interpretive theorists. As a result, various forms of interpretive inquiries have em

Women Of Ancient Greece Essay -- essays research papers

The Women of Greece: A Transition from Ancient Power to Classical Subservience   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  For the most part, women in today's society hold a position equal to that of a man; however, this has not always been the case. Women?s conquest for political and social freedom is a battle that has gone on for centuries. Perhaps the breaking point in women?s liberation was the Women's Movement of the 1900's, which encouraged women all over America to join in the fight for their right to vote. Because of this struggle for equality, women are now able to vote, receive a standard of fairness in the workplace, hold political positions, and play professional sports, as well as a wide array of other privileges enjoyed by men. Unfortunately, these civil rights have not been made available to women worldwide. In some cultures, especially those of the Middle East, women have gained little if any rights at all since the societies of the past. In Greece, an almost opposite effect can be seen in its history in which women in their country went from being recognized as equals and above, to becoming a much weaker sex. This odd transition of status of Greek women is evident through the art, mythology, and philosophy of a much older Greece. Thus dominant role of women portrayed in Ancient Greek mythology and artwork is in direct contrast to the more subservient role of women during the classical era in Greece.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ancient Greece, otherwise known as the Archaic period (650-450 B.C.), was a time of great development for Greece. The first major developments in Greece were cities or towns and their surrounding villages called city-states(Greece 366). Much rivalry consisted between city-state residents which resulted in a great deal of patriotism for one?s city-state. Some of the best known city-states are Athens and Sparta (Greece 366).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  During this time of growth, numerous tyrants came into control of the city-states. These tyrants caused the people to become bitterly rebellious, which later ended in revolt and the birth of the first known democratic government (Greece 372).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  City-states were once again threatened by takeover in the 500?s B.C., when Persian kings tried to overrun the city-states; however, the city-states revolted against the Persian kings. These uprisings did nothing more ... ...n of the Classical period, which is illustrated throughout the artwork. Amazon women (refer to Plate 5), who were depicted as being able to fight with men, were greatly symbolic of women?s power in ancient Greece. In a painting from the House of Dioscurides (see Plate 12), Perseus slays the dragon to free Andromeda, which reveals the woman?s dependency on a man. When comparing artwork of the Classical and Archaic period, one can see the transition that these Grecian women went through.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The struggle that some women have had to face for common rights that are enjoyed by women today is incredible. Many owe thanks, to those that have fought for civil rights so that equality can be enjoyed by everyone. Unfortunately, there are still many countries who suffer from a lack of true freedom. The transition that Greece went through in their attitude towards women is much different than any other cultures, in which women usually gain rights and respect not lose them. The woman portrayed in Archaic art, mythology and philosophy is one of power and grace, while the woman portrayed in Classical art, law and philosophy is one of subservience and weakness.

Power Relations in Summer of the 17th Doll :: Ray Lawler

Dramatic conflict consists of a struggle for power among characters, and dramatic resolution consists of a shift of power among them. Discuss the conflict and resolution in "Summer of The 17th Doll" in terms of the power relations in the play. The play summer of the 17th doll consists of many conflicts, some internal and some external. Some of these conflicts are resolved and some not. This essay will explore some of the internal conflicts as well as some of the external conflicts and elaborate on their importance to the play. There are a few themes in the play The Summer Of the 17th Doll. Some of these themes are Maturity, Gender stereo types, aging and time, ideals dreams vs. reality, loyalty and least expectation. I believe one of the strongest themes in the play is dreams vs. reality. Ray Lawler gives us a very big hint about what is going to happen in the play at the beginning of the play. Ray Lawler explains how the patio has some plants evading the walls. The patio symbolizes the layoff dream and the plans symbolize reality slowly but surely creeping up on them. There are many internal conflicts in the play. One internal conflict in the play is pride. This is best illustrated by Roo. Roos struggle with his pride is evident through out the play. It is so obvious that even other characters in the play can see it and comment on it. An example of this from the play is when Emma says to roo that his ?dirty lousy rotten pride? is changing the man she used to know. It is the reason for him getting in a tiff with John Dowd. But most of all his pride is the reason he is a broken man. His pride has made him stubborn and ignorant to help from other people. Fortunately, he is able to swallow his pride and work as a painter. His pride was the reason for his fall from the cane cutting gang and the reason he left them. In other words, we see the essentially good person (Roo) brought down by their fatal flaw pride. One external conflict that gives us great insight to the theme of the play is between Olive and Pearl. You could say that olive represents the illusion of the Dream that is known as the layoff season, whereas Pearl symbolizes reality.

Examination of Clinical Psychology Essay

Clinical psychology has a full history that dates back to the early days of Greek philosophy. The combination of philosophy, current psychology and science has created a specific discipline in clinical psychology. Research continues to improve and evolve this branch of psychology. There are certain distinctions that set clinical psychology apart from other areas of this discipline and this paper will explore not only those distinctions but also the history of clinical psychology. The History of Clinical Psychology The beginnings of psychology in general can be found in the era of Greek philosophy. Early philosophical thinkers saw the connection between the mind and body including the influence that relationship had concerning emotional sickness. Hippocrates, Plato, and Aristotle were a few of those that recognized the soul or spirit as being the primary force of the body. They also recognized that problems within the soul could manifest in physical illness (Plante, 2011, p. 34). In the middle ages, any kind of mental, emotional or physical sickness was thought to be characteristic of sin or evil and treatments of such issues were dealt with on a spiritual level. The following Renaissance era was all about scientific research and discovery taking the previous beliefs on spiritual origins and disproving them. Illness was established as something more explainable by scientific research rather than spiritual and metaphysical beliefs (Plante, 2011). As the nineteenth century rolled in, members of psychological study started to have a more accurate understanding of the connection between the body and mind. Sigmund Freud was one such forward thinker and he promoted theories that unconscious thoughts of the mind can hold a strong influence on one’s health drawing on the original beliefs of the Greeks (Parsons, 1958). The actual emergence of psychology began with the development of the first laboratory and book of psychology by Wilhelm Wundt. Development was quick after this first large step even though the new concepts and principles of psychology were being applied to peoples’ issues. Also the wars of our history provided a platform for the world of clinical psychology. Service members emerged in war required specialized treatments which led to the development of psychometric assessments. Later developments led to the creation of evolved models of guidelines and training for the education of clinical psychologists (Plante, 2011). Clinical Psychology’s Evolving Nature Clinical psychology has a fundamental instrument that develops its evolving nature which is described by its relationship with modern medicine and used of scientific methods (Kazdin, 2008). Clinical psychology continues to develop applications as new scientific evidence mounts. Contemporary clinical psychology embodies the scientific advances of science mixing in a deep understanding of the mind. The relationship of practice and research continue to come together to facilitate continual improvements in treatments and this relationship is a necessary element to the evolving nature (Kazdin, 2008). The only possible challenge for clinical psychology and research is the challenge of trying to customize treatment to meet the patient’s individual needs when there really is no defined outline of every individualistic need for each individual patient (Kazdin, 2008 p. 17). The Role of Research and Statistics in Clinical Psychology Research is a vital aspect of any psychology and clinical psychology is no different. Research provides the empirical foundation to answer questions with validity. Statistics is a vital part of this research since this area of the research facilitates researchers being able to conclude if the information is substantial and relevant. Research is also vital because to clinical psychology because it boosts therapy methods which leads to the improvement of one’s life and it also helps discover effective methods to diagnose and treat human behavioral issues (Plante, 2011). The scientific method of empirical study also benefits the researchers themselves enabling them to gain critical thinking skills. Research is one of the most fundamental practices that allows for the betterment of clinical psychology (Plante, 2011). Clinical Psychology as it Differs from Other Disciplines The primary differences between other disciplines and clinical psychology involve the targeted training, area of focus and possibly even the educational requirements. Some psychologists participating in the area of clinical diagnosis, such as a school psychologist or social worker, generally must earn a master’s degree but other specialized areas of clinical psychology might require a doctorate (Plante, 2011). School psychologists also specialize primarily in working with children and society’s youth whereas social workers can serve a more broad population and work in hospitals, schools or even county programs. Areas of counseling psychology are very similar to clinical psychology and there is the belief that the two separate groups do not even need to exist separately (Kazdin, 2008). There are also psychiatrists who have the added, extensive education and training in the medical arena and for all intended purposes they are physicians. They not only counsel as psychologists but are allowed to issue psychiatric medicine. Then there are other various mental health care professionals such as psychiatric nurses, specialized counselors, and industry and organization counselors who all provide clinical services. Even though clinical psychology differs in some aspects from other counseling professions, all of them have the purpose of using psychological principles to understand human behavior, helping individuals to live healthier and happier lives (Plante, 2011). Conclusion As this paper has laid out, there are many various contributions to the formation of clinical psychology becoming its own discipline. The evolution has traveled a long road but it has been steady and continuous with new information being discovered through scientific methods. Philosophy kicked off the curiosity that lead to future contributions by pioneers such as Freud and his psychoanalytic methods. Clinical psychology does hold its differences amongst other disciplines of psychology but the overall goal of all disciplines still remains to serve the general human population, attempting to give everyone a chance at a better quality of life. References Kazdin, A. E. (2008). Evidence based treatment and practice: new opportunities to bridge clinical research and practice. American Psychologist, 63(3), 146-159. Parsons, T. (1958). Social Structure and the Development of Personality: Freud’s Contribution to the Integration of Psychology and Sociology. Psychiatry: Journal for the Study of Interpersonal Processes, 21(10), 321-340. Plante, T. (2011). Contemporary clinical psychology (3rd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

Environmental Assessment of the Asopos River Basin

Presentation of Asopos River BasinEtymology – MythologyAsopos: ( Grecian: I ) from Asis, Greek: I†  ( = I ) , intending â€Å"marsh ( or Moor ) † and Opsis Greek: I , intending â€Å"appearance† . ASOPOS ( or Asopus ) was a River-God of Boiotia in cardinal Greece, and Sikyonia in the Peloponnesos, southern Greece. Naiades, Asopos’ 20 girls, were H2O nymphs who had names of Greek island towns.LocationIn a study of Ministry of Environment, Physical Planning and Public Works ( MoEPPW ) in 2006, it is referred that a entire country of 12,341 kilometers2is occupied by Water District 07 of East Sterea Ellada. This country consists of the Prefecture of Evoia, major parts of the Prefectures of Fthiotida ( 83.1 % ) , Voiotia ( 98.5 % ) , Fokida ( 41.9 % ) and smaller parts of the Prefectures of Magnisia ( 14.9 % ) and Attica ( 7.2 % ) . River Basin of Voiotikos Kifissos River, River Basin of Sperchios River and River Basin of Asopos River are the chief River Basins of the Water District referred above. Other important H2O organic structures located in that country are lakes Iliki and Paralimni. In the Figure below is presented the Water District 07 of East Sterea Ellada. The entire surface country of Asopos River Basin – which is located in East Attica and Voiotia Districts ( Central Greece ) and flows from West to east – is 450 kilometer2and extends to Evoikos Gulf. The entire length of Asopos is 57 kilometer, holding its beginnings in Elikona mountain, and some watercourses from Parnitha and Dervenochoria Mountains. Its flow watercourse base on ballss through Asopia, Inofyta, Schimatari, enters the part of north-east Attica and eventually meets the sea near Oropos laguna, in north Evoikos Gulf, as shown in the Figure below. Vertical tectonic motions, of different grades of strength resulted in the creative activity of Asopos’ River Basin. That is the ground why the basin is non homogeneously developed and has differences in deposit in different places. The part studied – piece of the Sub-Pelagonian zone – has a particular geological formation. More specifically it is constituted by three chief units:the crystalline cellar stone ( schists, schists with psammitic stones, schists with marbles and sipoline embolisms )the alpine cellar stones ( limestones and dolomites of Triassic and Jurassic age )the post-alpine deposits ( Neogene lignite-bearing sedimentations, marly formations with lignite embolisms, pudding stones, marly limestones and travertines, and other coarse unconsolidated stuff ) .A hydrogeological analysis of Asopos’ River Basin, concluded that semi-pervious formations of Neogene-Quarternary, extremely pervious formations of calcite and other imperviable formations cover the 55 % , 41 % and 4 % of the River Basin severally. The unequal spring H2O flow every bit good as the extended being of formations made by karst convert precipitation to direct infiltration further restricting surface H2O flow. As a consequence, the bulk of the H2O flow derive from natural or semi-processed industrial or domestic wastewaters. In dry periods, the H2O flow eliminates highly and the sea H2O enters the estuary of the river for 100s of metres. In a research of the Institute of Geology and Mineral Exploration ( I.G.M.E. ) in 1996 the coefficients of the surface drainage and infiltration were estimated to 0.19 and 0.25 severally. In the same research the appraisal of the one-year discharge is 70.1 hectometer3.Surface and Groundwater{ The fact that the H2O of the downpours penetrates into the constructions of groundwater, due to the widespread parts of limestone made by karst, consequences in an disconnected interaction between the two sides of the channel. As a consequence the hydrographic web of Asopos is non peculiarly good developed. In the yesteryear, despite its big catchment country, Asopos itself held H2O merely for a really short period. The ground was the fast incursion of the H2O from the surface into the aquifer. Nowadays, there are sections of Asopos that have H2O event in the summer, as a consequence of smaller subdivisions that enter the river. The Asopos’ River Basin has merely specific countries with impenetrable formations ( clay sedimentations, schists ) . As a consequence the H2O flow of the watercourse is non uninterrupted, apart from little downpours that keep a H2O flow for a specific clip period ( i.e. the Lantikos and thes Gouras ) . Streams like the Liveas ( in the Northwest of Malakasa ) have seasonal H2O flow. Other streams – the longest 1s – are the Potisiona, the Sklirorrema and the Vathi ( drain in its north side ) . Streams that drain of the south side of the basin are the Lykorrema, the Xerias, the Bresiko etc. A study conducted by Ministry of Environment, Physical Planning and Public Works ( MoEPPW ) in 2006, reports that there is an indicant of pollution caused by high organic tonss caused by industrial and urban wastes every bit good as agricultural tally offs in Asopos’ catchment country. The consequences – findings of that research were high concentrations of nitrates and P in Asopos River. Equally far as the groundwater quality is concerned, its features were classified into two separate classs: the ions and the hint elements. Some of the consequences of the survey of the Institute of Geology and Mineral Exploration ( I.G.M.E. ) ( Gianoulopoulos, 2008 ) are:the chief beginning of the nitrates are the N fertilisers, which are used in the agricultural sector. Additionally, the being of ammoniacal and nitrite ions is due to the urban and industrial pollution beginnings.There is increased concentration of Cl–and PO4ions, which are consequence of industrial pollution beginnings.The figure below shows the precipitation and the average temperature of the part of Asopos for the period October 1999 to September 2010. The informations are taken from the meteoric Stationss at Kallithea, Tanagra and Marathon. As we can easy detect the one-year mean precipitation degrees are 534.5 millimeters, 502.9 millimeter and 625 millimeter severally. Equally far as the mean one-year ai r temperature is 16.7OC and 17.5OC at the Tanagra and Marathon Stationss severally.Areas of Asopos categorized by usageThe country of Asopos has H2O demands for industry, agribusiness, abode and touristry. The survey about Asopos River Basin has to take into consideration that H2O demands and measure the distribution of that needs among the utilizations. There is a demand to specify the sectors that put more force per unit area in H2O usage. For the industrial sector, H2O usage takes topographic point for rinsing and colourising ( fabrics ) , steel production, cement production, oil processing, energy production etc. Sing the touristry sector of economic system and domestic sector ( families ) H2O usage concerns the H2O supply for place usage by the authorized provider. The prioritization of H2O usage in Asopos River Basin is as follows:Water supply of families, touristic units and vacation placeIrrigation of cultivated countries and farm animal unitsIndustrial H2O usageIn the figur e below the land usage of Asopos River Basin is presented. More specifically, the ecru colour represents the agricultural usage and the light purple the industrial usage.Demographic DataPermanent PopulationThe lasting population of Asopos River Basin as reported at 2001 Census is given in the tabular array below: For the Municipalities / Communes that do non fall entirely within Asopos River Basin, merely the lasting population of the subsequent Municipal Departments and urban vicinities that are included in Asopos River Basin was calculated.EmploymentTaking a expression at the Table below, which is harmonizing to informations from the Labor Force Survey of the National Statistical Service of Greece, we observe that the entire population of working age is divided into two big classs – the economically active population and the economically inactive population. The economically active population is divided into the employed and the unemployed. The employed are people with age greater than or equal to 10 old ages, who had worked even for merely an hr during the mention hebdomad ( for wage or net income or in household concern ) . Unemployed are people with age greater than or equal to 10 old ages, who did non hold work during the mention hebdomad, were presently available for work and we re either actively seeking work in the past four hebdomads or had already found a occupation to get down within the following three months. In economically inactive population belong those individuals who neither classified as employed nor as unemployed. Taking into consideration the information given by the Table above in combination with the definitions given, we can easy detect that the entire economically active population – in other words the work force – of Asopos River Basin in 2001 was 31,764 people. Out of these people 28,837 are employed – 90.8 % of the entire economically active population – and 2,927 are unemployed – 9.2 % of the entire economically active population. Equally far as the employing sectors is concerned, in the primary sector are employed about 19.8 % of the sum of employed people and about 9.8 % of the entire population ( economically active and economically inactive people ) . In the secondary sector are employed about 28 % of the sum of employed people and about 14 % of the entire population of Asopos River Basin. Finally, in the third sector are employed about 35.2 % of the sum of employed people, whereas about 17.4 % of the entire population of Asopos River Basin. As shown in the Table below people that work in the primary and secondary sector are about 24 % ( 9.8 % + 14 % ) of the resident population of Asopos River Basin over 15 old ages old, whereas in the third sector is occupied about the 18 % of the resident population of Asopos River Basin over 15 old ages old. On the other manus in Athens country occupants over 15 old ages old who are occupied in the primary and secondary sector are 11 % , whereas those who are occupied in the third sector are about the 32 % . Overall we can detect that the primary and secondary sector are more developed in Asopos River Basin than in Athens country, whereas the third sector is much more developed in Athens country.The ProblemDescriptionTaking into history the fact that Asopos part supports 1300 industries and related installations – nutrient and drink industries, agrochemical, metal processing etc. – it is considered as the largest industrial part of Greece. 1970 was the decate that indus trial activity started in the country of Asopos and more specifically in Schimatari and Inofita. To show some Numberss for the significance of the job of this country, we refer that 130 units of the bing 1s produce waste Waterss during their operational maps ( production ) . Equally far as the waste Waterss are concerned, the entire day-to-day produced measure is about 9,044 m3/day. 84 % of that measure is due to industrial waste Waterss. More specifically, this measure is split in 7,605 m3/day and 1,439 m3/day, the entire day-to-day measure of waste Waterss of the industrial units of the country and the entire day-to-day measure of waste Waterss of the employees of these units severally. Taking a glimpse at the Table below, which is a study from a study of M. Loizidou in 2009, we can easy detect that the chief sectors from which the bulk of waste Waterss come from are the sectors of â€Å"Textile and leather industries† , â€Å"Metallurgy related industries† and †Å"Industries of Foods and Drinks† at 25 % , 21 % and 30 % severally.Consequences – ImpactsThe estimated impacts of industrial sector on Asopos River Basin are fundamentally environmental and societal impacts. More specifically the environmental impacts of industrial pollution in Asopos catchment consist in catastrophe of biodiversity – fish and invertebrates, birds on estuary – and in the pollution and decrease of groundwater. On the other manus the societal impacts of industrial pollution in Asopos catchment are impacts on human wellness – from ingestion of contaminated agricultural merchandises and groundwater, impacts on local economic system, which is because of increased cost for imbibing H2O for families, increased cost for local agricultural manufacturers, increased cost for nutrient industries, and lessening of tourers for local tourer companies. Finally, other societal impacts of industrial pollution of Asopos River Basin are impacts on diversion of local occupants every bit good as visitants ( touristry ) .Choice Experiment Method on Asopos CaseUsing the Choice Experiment Method on the Asopos Case, the research workers targeted to measure a package of betterments, which could take topographic point in the Asopos River Basin. This package of betterments includes:Environmental conditions described in footings of ecological position in all H2O organic structures of the catchmentImpact on the local economic system in footings of tourism/recreation, demand for local production and cost of life for families andImpact on human wellness described as handiness of H2O with a quality and measure sufficient for fulfilling different local utilizations.The package of betterments is a mixture of usage and non-use values. As usage value is defined the values that people derive from the direct usage of a good. Examples of usage value are runing, fishing, or boosting. Use values may besides include indirect utilizations. For illustration, a particular part offers direct usage values to the people who visit the country. Others could hold fun watching about this part in a Television show. In that manner they would have indirect usage values. As non-use value is defined the value that people assign to economic goods ( including public goods ) even if they ne'er have and ne'er will utilize it. Non-use value as a class may include:â€Å" option value † – the value placed on single willingness to pay for keeping an plus or resource even if there is small or no likeliness of the person really of all time utilizing it, happening because of uncertainness about future supply ( the continued being of the plus ) and possible hereafter demand ( the possibility that it may someday be used ) .â€Å" bequest value † – values placed on single willingness to pay for keeping or continuing an plus or resource that has no usage now, so that it is available for future coevalss.â€Å" Existence value â€Å" – an unusual and slightly controversial category of economic value, reflecting the benefit people receive from cognizing that a peculiar environmental resource, such as Antarctica, the Grand Canyon, en dangered species, Sharri Dogs or any other being or thing exists.â€Å" selfless value † – the value placed on single willingness to pay for keeping an plus or resource that is non used by the person, so that others may do usage of it. Its value arises from others ‘ usage of the plus or resource.The method of Choice Experiments was chosen because since it is a conjectural survey-based method, it can quantify the public-service corporation every bit good as the Willingness To Pay ( WTP ) for different conjectural degrees of each property examined. In add-on, in Choice Experiments the respondent chooses between options, as packages of properties, doing picks ensuing to a lower danger for strategic prejudice – yeah stating, in the replies. Finally, it is one of the best ways to measure non-market resources, options and properties.Sampling – Survey MethodExcept for the necessitate of rating of the socio-economic and environmental effects related with th e debasement of the basin, the survey that took topographic point aimed to look into the manner the two different populations – that of the occupants of Asopos ( rural population ) and that of the occupants of Athens ( urban population ) – give value to the same package of proposed betterments. Apart from the socio-demographic composing that has motivated this sampling, another ground for that is the different manner those populations experience the debasement of the environment due to location and economic dependance on the country. One of the chief grounds why two different samples were chosen was that the purpose of the survey was to happen out usage and non-use values. As a consequence the mark population was the occupants of the Asopos River Basin, where the study took topographic point, because they would be straightforward affected by possible alterations in H2O direction. On the other manus occupants of Athinais were included in the study, because they were in close propinquity to Asopos River Basin. The study was conducted by door-to-door interviews. The interviews took topographic point in families and one grownup per house participated. Quota sampling was followed harmonizing to 2001 Census informations in order the samples to be every bit representative as possible. Finally, 25 % of the occupants were called. During the procedure of the interview were used suited showcards, which described the alternate scenario utilizing images. The census taker gave simple descriptions of the inquiries, read aloud. In that manner the census takers could break illustrate policy results to respondents in footings of properties and degrees.

Crime Today Essay

We can all see some logic in this type of action as â€Å"money† can cause a lot of mayhem, and it’s especially bad for people who don’t have any. Many people can recognize being poor and yearning for a better life. However, most of us do not act out in criminal ways in order to get ourselves out of financial hardship. In contrast, think about the guy who just last week went into that school and killed 20 children and 5 adults for really no reason at all. Nobody can grasp any reason at all why someone would or even could do something so gruesome and evil. It just doesn’t make sense. So why is it that crime seems so bad today than in the past. Well, I would have to say heavy population increases don’t help. All of the technological advancements only make it easier for us to see all the bad news. I think that some people knowing that the media is going to shout out their names all over the newspapers and televisions is an incentive to criminals who want to be, I guess you could say â€Å"known† for something. Crime has always existed, since the beginning of time. It’s almost like it’s human nature. Nevertheless, is America falling into a trap where crime is normal? As our prison systems grow, are we allowing crime to grow to fill the gaps, or is it the other way around? My personal opinion is that we in fact are. Did you know that when America’s crime rates declined steadily for about a decade and a half, that  the United States still had the most car thefts, the most rapes and the most murders in the world the United States still had the most car thefts, the most rapes and the most murders in the world (Economic Collapse, 2012). What does that say about us? In addition, even though the United States has the largest prison systems in the entire world (and we win by a large margin), we can see that there are still thousands or criminals reaching havoc on the streets of America every day. There are some places that are still showing a slight decline in crime rates; however, others are showing an alarming rate of crime increases. What is the answer to all of this? I’m not sure if anybody really knows. In addition to all of this, is this recent economic downturn going to turn more people into criminals? Probably so, and we don’t know how to fix it. We can only build so many prisons, and we can only afford so many police officers. Billions are spent in America and around the world each year combating crime, building prisons, paying for police and legal costs involved with crime, delinquency and other related problems, but the problem continues. It’s a never ending battle. Another thing is that a myriad of excuses and justifications for criminal behavior have replaced the principle that everyone, including the criminal, is fully responsible for his actions. Every criminal has a reason why â€Å"they† did what they did. Well, my parents abused me when I was little; I have psychological issues, etc. When does it end? Although, I do agree with this point a little bit. I do believe that poverty does increase crime. Now I’m by no means saying that just because people grow up poor that gives them the right to act out in criminal behavior, or that just because someone grew up wealthy means that they won’t resort to crime. I am just saying that I can see how the way we were brought up and the things we have experienced can create different reactions to things in life. After all, it’s our experiences in life that shape who we are as a person. There are so many different aspects or crime and crime control that I can get into, from a no-fault society to gun control. However, none of this stuff seems to really make a difference, so maybe it’s time to get together and come up with a different plan. Obviously, what we are doing as a country is not working. References The Economic Collapse. (2012). Is Crime Making a Comeback? Retrieved from: http://theeconomiccollapseblog. com/archives/is-crime-making-a-comeback-12-crime-statistics-that-make-you-wonder-what-is-happening-to-america/

Addressing the Community Leadership Challenges Faced by Women Leaders of Sitio Galilee, Antipolo Essay

This 2012 study explores the community leadership of women in the locale of Sitio Galilee in Antipolo City. Even though the standards of leadership persist to be male-oriented, more women are taking up leadership positions in our society. The prevalent aim of this study is to identify the challenges that these women leaders face toward development in their community; more importantly, how these can be addressed. The study mainly sought to (1) identify and understand the leadership challenges that women leaders face in initiating development in their community, and (2) facilitate or assist possible action programs that will address these challenges. To resolve this issue, the processes of the Participatory Action Research (PAR) were followed, namely: (1) diagnosing the status of women’s involvement and leadership in the community, (2) planning of action programs that will address the identified leadership challenges, (3) its implementation and monitoring, and (4) the evaluation. The accounts of women leaders and the perceptions of the members were collected through one-on-one interviews. In addition, focus group discussions were conducted to encourage people’s participation. Guided by the Social Role Theory, the role of the women as community leaders is further analyzed. This study is a contributory factor to theoreticians and community development practitioners in analyzing the unaddressed issues of community leadership. See more: My Writing Process Essay Keywords: Women and leadership, community leadership, community development, Participatory Action Research Background of the Study Traditionally, community affairs and administration have been the sphere of influence of men. Hassan (2008) explains that â€Å"this is evident from the imbalance of leaders and office bearers across community, local councils and associations.† Silong (2008) also pointed out that â€Å"women have not been active in local politics and are relatively inactive in public processes due to institutional, socio-economic and cultural constraints.† In the history of the Philippines, women portrayed essential roles, not only in the facet of taking care of the family but also in the development of the life of the tribe during the pre-colonial times (Shah, 2007). With the beginning of colonization, it brought about a patriarchal society wherein women were made inferior to men and are not licensed to certain rights (Clamonte, 2007). However, times are changing. There is now acceptance that women can do and play a significant role in community affairs, particularly in contributing to the achievement of community development and progress. Nowadays, stories of women occupying leadership positions are becoming ordinary. Although regarded by Zaharah and Silong (2008) as â€Å"the unsung heroes of community action†, women’s role in community leadership has become increasingly important. In certain communities, they already learned the knowledge and skill that have produced positive transformation to their community (Bond, Holmes, Byrne, Babchuck, & Kirton-Robbins, 2008). More importantly, they have established themselves as community leaders. However, many are not aware of the challenges that these women leaders face. In view of this, the researcher learned, through the ocular visit that all the community leaders of Sitio Galilee, Antipolo are women. Their husbands work in the city and only come home for the weekend. Hence, their weekdays are spent at caring for the family, doing household chores, daily chatting in the neighborhood and playing card games. Above all this, they also manage to plan and work concerning community affairs. The researcher sought to further investigate on the women’s leadership in the community, specifically on the challenges they encounter. Research Objectives The women leaders in the community of Sitio Galilee, Antipolo face several leadership challenges that need to be addressed. How can the community of Sitio Galilee, Antipolo address these? Specifically, this study sought to: 1. Diagnose the status of women’s involvement and leadership in the community; 2. Identify the leadership challenges faced by women leaders towards community development; 3. Initiate the planning of action programs that will address the identified leadership challenges; 4. Implement the action program and facilitate its monitoring; and 5. Evaluate the effectiveness of the action programs. Significance of the Study This study serves its significance for two aspects: theoretical and practical. Firstly, this study is guided by the Social Role theory. This theory emphasizes on the processes of role-taking and role-making as part of an individual’s life. Accompanied by these processes is the role conflict which may develop as one struggle different simultaneous roles. This study improves the clarity and applicability of the theory as it is used by a researcher. This study is a contributory factor to the residents of Sitio Galilee, Antipolo in broadening their understanding of the leadership barriers that their women leaders are encountering. This Participatory Action Research assists them in the process of maximum participation of the community, through initiating action programs, in addressing the identified challenges. Hence, this study promotes and encourages community development in the locale. This study is affiliated with the University of Santo Tomas and its Simbahayan Office. This is a useful document in analyzing and addressing the issues of community leadership within their partner communities. Scope and Delimitation The scope of this research is the women leaders in Sitio Galilee, Antipolo. This study focused on the role of women in leadership and community development, the identification of the experienced leadership barriers towards development in their community, and most significantly the process wherein these challenges were addressed. This study did not cover other factors, other than leadership per se, that impede the process of development and progress in the community of Sitio Galilee. A constructivist worldview was applied. This implies that the researcher seeks to establish the meaning of a phenomenon from the views of the participants. In this endeavor, the journeys of women leaders were described and determined by the participants. Furthermore, the action programs implemented came from the propositions of the participants. The researcher only served as facilitator and participant observer of the said approach. Theoretical Framework Individuals have several roles that they play across time and place within the period of life. According to Burr (1972), â€Å"throughout life, individuals transfer into and out of different roles, keeping some, leaving others behind, and beginning new roles.† This study is guided by the Social Role Theory. This is not just a single theory; rather this was established through interrelating and interconnecting perspectives. One of the pioneers of this theory is George Herbert Mead’s â€Å"role-taking†. It explains that the ability to put oneself in another’s place is an essential development of the ‘self’ (Ritzer, 2000). According to this theory, â€Å"social role is a set of rights, duties, expectations, norms and behavior a person has to face and to fulfill.† Linton (1936) explained that, as cited in the study of Harrison and Lynch (2005), â€Å"the role represents the sum total of all various roles of an individual, and determines what one does for the society and one may expect from it.† In this sense, â€Å"roles do not remain static, but change and evolve over time†, as stated by Turner (1990). There is the concept of â€Å"role-taking† where an individual acquires or takes on the role of other individuals; and â€Å"role-making† wherein one is able to create and recreate these roles (Turner, 1990). In undergoing these processes, one may experience â€Å"role overload† and â€Å"role conflict†. Turner (1990) defines role overload as, â€Å"the experience of lacking the resources, including time and energy, needed to meet the demands of all roles.† On the other hand, role conflict is defined by Turner (1990) as, â€Å"an incongruity between the expectations of one role and those of another.† However, there is the so called â€Å"role balance†. Role balance is a state wherein an individual is able to perform his or her roles well and meet its expectations (Marks & MacDermid, 1996). To show how the social role theory is applied in this study of the leadership challenges of women leaders, the researcher conceptualized a paradigm that illustrate how the multiple roles (with its linked rights, duties and expectations to it) of a woman contribute to the challenges they face. Literature Review Gender role encapsulates the characteristics and behaviors that are distinguished as either masculine or feminine (Bem, 1974; Clamonte, 2007). Carli and Eagly (2001) have enumerated: The set of traits and behaviors labeled as masculine includes the following: is self-reliant, independent, and assertive, has leadership abilities, is willing to take risks, makes decisions easily, is dominant, is willing to take a stand, acts like a leader, and is athletic, ambitious, and self-sufficient. The set of traits and behaviors labeled as feminine include these: is affectionate, compassionate, and cheerful, does not use harsh language, is loyal, sensitive to the needs of others, sympathetic, gentle, and understanding, loves children, and is tender and warm. Tannen (1990) pointed out that, â€Å"the traditional gender role is a social orientation that emphasizes closeness and solidarity, whereas the traditional masculine gender role is a social orientation that emphasized power and status.† In sociology, gender roles are considered ‘artifactual’ or socially constructed ideals in the society. Eagly (2002) has characterized this as a â€Å"male-advantaged gender hierarchy.† The roles associated to men benefited them more than the women’s. They gained more access to resources, authority in decision makings and more slots in the administration (Kolb, 1999). In the Philippines, women enjoyed distinguished equality in the society during the pre-colonial times (Santos-Maranan, Parreno, & Fabros, 2006). Shah (2007) explicated that, â€Å"Filipinos have tracked kinship bilaterally.† Some of the rights they experienced are: (1) they were entitled to the properties of their family, (2) instigate divorce of their husbands, (3) engage in trading and a lot more privileges (Clamonte, 2007). However, the coming of the Spaniards that brought about the indoctrination of Catholicism has downgraded the role of Filipino women (Shah, 2007). The spirit of the native Filipina was changed. Shah (2007) expounded that, â€Å"the image of the Filipino women became tied to the house whose only duty was to take care of the husband and the children.† Alesina, Nunn and Giuliano (2011) also added, â€Å"It also became a father’s good girl, a husband’s subject, and a long-suffering woman with sealed lips and silent sobs and has not right to participate political undertakings.† In the rural area, the Filipino woman belongs in the home. Flavier (2007) described in his book, Doctor to the Barrios, that â€Å"rural women in the Philippines wield considerable authority, the housewife in particular.† According to him, the housewife is often called as the â€Å"Reyna ng Tahanan†. A recent writing by Vartii (2011) revealed that, â€Å"there is a re-emergence of the empowerment of Filipino women though the political process.† In the present times, women in the Philippines are reviving the strengths they lost. Women now are seen working outside the home and occupying the prominent positions in their own field. Many even manage to become leaders. Fabros (2005) affirmed, â€Å"No matter what kinds of issues they (women) are involved in at present, one thing is clear – they are the very testimony of a better Philippines.† The second-wave feminism and radical feminism have remedied the traditional issues on gender (Cornell, 1998 in Pflanz, 2011). Even though there was a significant development of the status of women in the 20th century, there’s still much to be done to fully change the social beliefs regarding this matter. Carly and Eagly (2001) argues that, â€Å"women continue to lack access to power and leadership compared with men.† There is this phenomenon called â€Å"glass ceiling†. Coleman (2003) defines this as â€Å"a barrier that is impenetrable to women.† Pflanz (2011) mentioned in his study that, â€Å"Studies involving women in leadership roles indicate the majority of women believe their biggest obstacle to advancement is a mindset favoring candidates that fit in a male-dominated environment.† Even though the standards of leadership persist to be male-oriented, more women are taking up leadership positions in our society (Pflanz, 2011). Pflanz (2011) further explained that, â€Å"many women assume leadership positions in order to have an influence within their communities.† The Department of Communities of the Queensland Government (2006) stated that, â€Å"Community leadership is leadership in, for and by the community.† Ferrer (2010) affirms, â€Å"it reflects the concept of people and groups working together to achieve common vision and goals.† Community leadership is not profit-oriented and therefore involves non-paid leaders (Baconguis, 2010). In the study of Garina (1957), he revealed that, â€Å"non-paid local leaders are vital in community action; cooperation with them by outside agencies is imperative in the process of community development.† Women’s participation in the communities and national scene was not only through public leadership. In many cases, women form the backbone of formations as members or volunteers, particularly at the community level. There are numerous examples of this point: barangay health workers, churchwomen, community mobilizers, members of people’s organizations and civic organizations – over and above their traditional roles as domestic managers/housekeepers, caregivers, and even as they engage in productive labor outside the domestic sphere (Bond, Holmes, Byrne, Babchuck, & Kirton-Robbins, 2008). The report on the Forum on Women NGO Managers in 1987 entitled, â€Å"Women NGO Managers: Issues and Dilemmas† revealed that women NGO managers play multiple roles and have triple responsibility of caring for the home and children, earning a living/working outside the home and contributing to the national development. It showed that these women experience a major dilemma on how to balance and integrate the concerns of family life and the demands of work/career commitment. These pressures on family-work commitments are further magnified by leadership roles that women play in their organization (PHILDHRRA, 1987).